Hunter Safety Tips NRAFamily.org has a good article listing seven salient safety tips for hunters. Anyone preparing for a fall hunt should read this article before heading into the field. Here are two of key bits of advice:
Be Positive of Your Target before Shooting
This might sound overly simplistic, but the fact remains that, every year during whitetail season, farmers everywhere are forced to spray-paint their cattle or risk having them “harvested” by hunters who don’t bother confirming the species of the large ungulate in their sights. Why does this happen? The most likely explanation is “buck fever,” meaning that the hunter wants so badly to see a nice big buck that sometimes his eyes deceive him into thinking that there’s one there. When in doubt, don’t shoot.
Scopes Are Not Binoculars
Never use a riflescope as a substitute for binoculars. The temptation to do so is real, but when one does this, one is by definition pointing the muzzle of the gun at unknown targets.
Visit WhereToHunt.org
There’s a great online resource for hunters that will help you find game locations in your state and ensure you have all the proper permits and game tags. WheretoHunt.org features an interactive map of the country. For all 50 states, the NSSF has compiled information about hunting license and permits, where to hunt, hunter education classes, laws and regulations and more. For each state you’ll also find a link for required applications and license forms.
Click Map to Get State-by-State Hunting INFO
Hunting Affiliation Groups
There are many good organizations dedicated to promoting hunting and preserving our hunting habitats. These groups all offer valuable information for hunters:
Here’s a “must-read” article for .22 LR rimfire shooters. The recently-released October 2018 issue of Shooting Sports USA (SSUSA) includes a great article with data on thirty-one (31) different types of popular .22 LR rimfire ammunition. The line-up includes low-speed, standard, and Hi-Velocity types, plus choices for plinking, varminting, and target applications. Brands tested include: Aguila, American Eagle, CCI, Federal, Fiocchi, Lapua, Remington, and Winchester. The slowest ammo, CCI Quiet-22 Lead RN, clocked 727 FPS. The fastest ammo, CCI Short-Range Green Lead-Free HP, ran 1735 FPS, more than twice as fast as the Quiet-22.
For each ammo type, SSUSA lists the bullet weight, velocity (FPS), and average of two, 5-shot groups at fifty yards. The most accurate ammo was Lapua Center-X LRN, with a 0.37″ average 50-yard group size. Second best was Lapua X-ACT LRN at 0.42″. Ammo was tested from a bench with a Cooper Model 57-M rifle fitted with 3-9x33mm Leupold VX-2 scope. The ammo offerings were grouped into three categories: (1) Varmints/Small Game; (2) Target; and (3) Plinking. (See ammo tables below.)
Click for larger page-view.
Different types of .22 LR (Long Rifle) rimfire ammo have different applications. Subsonic ammo, typically, is best for 25m to 50m target work with precision rimfire rigs. Hi-Velocity .22 LR ammo provides a flatter trajectory for longer ranges. SSUSA explains: “The array of .22 LR loads… turns a person’s head every which way. Subsonic target loads are the key to decisive accuracy on targets, while hyper-velocity cartridges provide striking bullet expansion on small varmints. In between, standard and high-velocity .22 LRs are loadrf with a variety of bullet weights and styles for everything from small-game hunting to plinking[.]” READ Full SSUSA .22 LR Rimfire Ammo Story.
At the request of our readers, we provide select “Deals of the Week”. Every Monday morning we offer our Best Bargain selections. Here are some of the best deals on firearms, hardware, reloading components, optics, and shooting accessories. Be aware that sale prices are subject to change, and once clearance inventory is sold, it’s gone for good. You snooze you lose.
1. Midsouth — Major Brand Blem Tipped Bullets — Up to 45% Off
Midsouth is now offering big savings on major-brand blem bullets. These are overruns, cosmetically blemished jackets or tip discolorations, or factory second bullets from a major bullet manufacturer (Midsouth isn’t allowed to name the company). NOTE: Some projectile tips are misshapen, other packages may contain bullets which vary by grain weight. No matter what, you’re getting tipped hunting, or tipped match bulk bullets at huge savings. Many options in .243 (6mm), .257, .264 (6.5mm), .277, .284 (7mm), .308, and .338 calibers.
2. Brownells — Thompson Center T/CR22 — $249.99 With Rebate
Thompson Center’s new T/CR22 rimfire can use most Ruger 10/22 accessories including 10/22 mags. But it has some distinct advantages over the Ruger. The stock is a quality MagPul composite design. The barrel is button-rifled with a threaded muzzle. The bolt holds open after the last shot. This gun comes complete with front and rear iron sights as well as a Picatinny rail on the action. NRA reviewers praised this gun saying: “Thompson Center has taken the aftermarket parts you’re going to pay extra for [on a Ruger 10/22] and made them standard on the T/CR22, saving you some cash[.]” Right now the T/CR22 is on sale for $299.99 at Brownells with a $50 manufacturer REBATE, for a $249.99 cost after rebate. But it gets better — use CODE “N8Y” during checkout to save another $20 and get free shipping. Then your actual cost for the rifle (after discount and rebate), is $229.99 plus $10.00 FFL Processing fee.
3. Brownells — ATI GSG .22 LR FireFly Pistol (P226 Style)
If you like SIG Sauer P-series pistols, you’ll love this GSG .22 LR rimfire. It faithfully copies the lines and ergonomics of the classic P226 9mm handgun. Make by GSG in Germany, the ATI Firefly features a 4″ barrel, alloy frame, and steel slide. A simple blowback operating system provides reliable cycling with included 10-round magazine. The Firefly is on sale now at Brownells for just $179.99, marked down from $249.99. That’s a great price for a nice little rimfire that is offered in three finishes: Matte Black, Tan, and Dark Green. Weight: 1.53 pounds.
4. VihtaVuori — $5.00 Per Pound Rebate on Vihtavuori Powders
The 2018 VihtaVuori Rebate Program is under way. For a limited time, earn $5.00 back per bottle when you purchase VihtaVuori powders. Act soon as this offer expires on October 15, 2018. Be sure to keep your receipts and note the labels. The Rebate application MUST include proof of purchase showing retailer name and date of purchase. And the Rebate Form MUST include the serial number for each VihtaVuori bottle purchased.
VV Rebate Start Date: 8/15/2018
VV Rebate End Date: 10/15/2018
Postmarked By Date: 11/30/2018
Minimum Purchase: One 1-pound bottle
Maximum Purchase: Twelve 1-pound bottles
Maximum REBATE is $60.00
5. Natchez — Big Savings on Nikon Optics (Scopes, LRFs, Binocs)
Need a scope or LRF for hunting season? Here’s a chance to save hundreds on a quality Nikon optic. Natchez Shooters Supply is offering exclusive deals on both new and refurbished Nikon riflescopes, rangefinders, and binoculars including camo finish hunting scopes for hunters. There are some truly excellent bargains, plus you can get $5 Flat Rate Shipping with Code 180910 (through 9/12/18). Here are some of the best deals on Nikon scopes at Natchez right now:
Burris Scopes Also on Sale
Natchez also has many Burris scopes up to 60% OFF. For example the Burris XTR II 1-5x24mm riflescope is marked down from $799.00 to $459.99, a $339 savings!
6. Mossberg — 20% Off All Products in Mossberg Store this Week
Mossberg just announced a major fall season sale. Virtually everything in Mossberg’s online store is now 20% Off with CODE “FALL 20″. This includes stocks, barrels, triggers, sights, heat shields, magazines, apparel, range bags, gun cases, and much more. This is a great way to acquire quality accessories at bargain prices. This promotion runs through 10/11/2018. Mossberg Sale tip from EdLongrange.
NOTE: This sale does not apply to complete Mossberg rifles or shotguns. Those must be purchased through retail FFL dealers.
7. Stocky’s — LR Stocks with Aluminum Bedding Block, $179.99
Here’s a good deal on a versatile Stocky’s Long Range Stock with aluminum V-block bedding system. For just $179.99, order this for Rem/Rem Clone long actions or short actions, with either narrow or wide (varmint/tactical) barrel channel. This would be a good choice for a varmint rifle. This is also offered with handsome hydrographic or web-pattern baked-on textured finishes for $199.99.
8. Brownells — RCBS Rock Chucker Supreme Press, $130.99
The RCBS Rock Chucker Supreme Press is a classic single-stage press that will handle all hand-loading sizing and seating chores. There’s plenty of leverage to full-length size big cases. The rigidity of this cast-iron press also allows precise, repeatable bullet seating. While we prefer to prime as a separate operation, you CAN prime your cases with the Rock Chucker. Right now this press is on sale at Brownells for $140.99. However, with CODE “NBM” you save $10 and get FREE Shipping. That way your net cost is $130.99 delivered. This same press sells elsewhere for up to $165.00.
9. Amazon — 12″x12″ Splatter Grid Targets, 10 for $9.99
This 12″x12″ Splatterburst Target combines splatter shot marking with a grid background, with five aiming points. The bright neon shot circles make it easy to see your shots. And the handy grid lets you quickly estimate your group size. Get a 10-pack for $9.99, or a 25-pack for $17.99 (better deal). This particular target has earned rave reviews — 87% of verified buyers gave this a FIVE-Star rating. One example: “Excellent quality and durability. The adhesive is really strong. High contrast makes down range targeting easy and the splatter contrast is [great].”
This is the kind of program we like to see — a well-organized event that introduces hundreds of new participants to the shooting sports. In this instance, some 472 ladies attended a day-long event in Oklahoma City, OK. Part of the NRA’s successful Woman On Target program, the Oklahoma city Day at the Range Fun Shoot was a huge success.
Suzi Rouse, lead organizer for the event stated: “It was a great success as evidenced by the smiling faces and positive feedback on their evaluations”. Rouse heads up efforts for one of the most popular Women on Target events in the nation.
The Oklahoma City (OKC) event included pistol, rifle, and shotgun shooting with guns, ammunition, and safety gear supplied by the organizers and sponsors. This year, for example, Blaser Firearms provided two new .308 Win Mauser M18s. There were even prize give-aways during the lunch break.
The team at the Oklahoma City Gun Club has many years of experience now, and runs the big event like clockwork. While the Fun Shoot is focused on new shooters, there are many repeat lady participants, for whom this has become the social event of the year at the OKC Club. 2018 marks the 19th year the club has hosted a Fun Shoot for Women.
Spotlight on Suzi Rouse Event Director Suzi Rouse has served as President of the Oklahoma City Gun Club. She’s been a very effective leader in an activity typically dominated by men.
“Rouse grew up in a family where firearms were part and parcel of life. Rouse … has evolved into a strong advocate for female shooters. Rouse has long been active with the NRA and its marksmanship and safety efforts. And though the seed for the Women on Target program was planted in Wisconsin in 1998, Rouse was among the first women to get involved. She applied for and won a grant to train 12 women to be rifle, shotgun, and handgun instructors so the new shooters would be taught by other women. Rouse started the Oklahoma version as a ‘beta’ event a year after the Wisconsin debut, and the program went national soon thereafter.” — From America’s First Freedom.
Photo 1: Three Near-Equal-Weight 7mm Bullets with Different Shapes
TECH TIP: Bullets of the same weight (and caliber) can generate very different pressure levels due to variances in Bearing Surface Length (BSL).
Bullet 1 (L-R), the RN/FB, has a very slight taper and only reaches its full diameter (0.284″) very near the cannelure. This taper is often seen on similar bullets — it helps reduce pressures with good accuracy. The calculated BSL of Bullet 1 was ~0.324″. The BSL of Bullet 2, in the center, was ~0.430”, and Bullet 3’s was ~ 0.463″. Obviously, bullets can be visually deceiving as to BSL!
This article from the USAMU covers an important safety issue — why you should never assume that a “book” load for a particular bullet will be safe with an equal-weight bullet of different shape/design. The shape and bearing surface of the bullet will affect the pressure generated inside the barrel. This is part of the USAMU’s Handloading Hump Day series, published on the USAMU Facebook page.
Beginning Handloading, Part 13:
Extrapolating Beyond Your Data, or … “I Don’t Know, What I Don’t Know!”
We continue our Handloading Safety theme, focusing on not inadvertently exceeding the boundaries of known, safe data. Bullet manufacturers’ loading manuals often display three, four, or more similar-weight bullets grouped together with one set of load recipes. The manufacturer has tested these bullets and developed safe data for that group. However, seeing data in this format can tempt loaders — especially new ones — to think that ALL bullets of a given weight and caliber can interchangeably use the same load data. Actually, not so much.
The researchers ensure their data is safe with the bullet yielding the highest pressure. Thus, all others in that group should produce equal or less pressure, and they are safe using this data.
However, bullet designs include many variables such as different bearing surface lengths, hardness, and even slight variations in diameter. These can occasionally range up to 0.001″ by design. Thus, choosing untested bullets of the same weight and caliber, and using them with data not developed for them can yield excess pressures.
This is only one of the countless reasons not to begin at or very near the highest pressure loads during load development. Always begin at the starting load and look for pressure signs as one increases powder charges.
Bullet bearing surface length (BSL) is often overlooked when considering maximum safe powder charges and pressures. In photo 1 (at top), note the differences in the bullets’ appearance. All three are 7mm, and their maximum weight difference is just five grains. Yet, the traditional round nose, flat base design on the left appears to have much more BSL than the sleeker match bullets. All things being equal, based on appearance, the RN/FB bullet seems likely to reach maximum pressure with significantly less powder than the other two designs.
Bearing Surface Measurement Considerations
Some might be tempted to use a bullet ogive comparator (or two) to measure bullets’ true BSL for comparison’s sake. Unfortunately, comparators don’t typically measure maximum bullet diameter and this approach can be deceiving.
Photo 2: The Perils of Measuring Bearing Surface Length with Comparators
In Photo 2, two 7mm comparators have been installed on a dial caliper in an attempt to measure BSL. Using this approach, the BSLs differed sharply from the original [measurements]. The comparator-measured Bullet 1 BSL was 0.694” vs. 0.324” (original), Bullet 2 was 0.601” (comparator) vs. 0.430” (original), and Bullet 3 (shown in Photo 2) was 0.602” (comparator) vs. 0.463” (original). [Editor’s comment — Note the very large difference for Bullet 1, masking the fact that the true full diameter on this bullet starts very far back.]
Gunsmith Darrell Holland sells a priming tool that upgrades the RCBS Auto Bench Priming Tool with key features — including primer seating depth control. If your hand starts to hurt after priming dozens of cases with a hand-held, squeeze-type priming tool, you may want to consider Holland’s invention, which he calls the “Perfect Primer Seater” (PPS).
Holland basically has modified the RCBS lever, adding a precise crush control and a means of measuring depth with a gauge. He claims this gives “an EXACT primer seating depth based on primer pocket depth and primer thickness”. With Holland’s PPS, primer seating depth is controlled with a rotating wheel that limits lever travel in precise gradations. You can buy the complete priming system for $215.00, or, if you already own the RCBS Auto Prime tool, you can purchase an adapter kit (with base, arm, adjuster, and gauge etc.) for $120.00. To order, visit Hollandguns.com. Click on “Reloading Equipment”, and look for the Perfect Primer Seater. Scroll down to the bottom of the page to add items to the shopping cart.
User Review by Tommy Todd
Sierra Bullets’ Chief Ballistician Tommy Todd acquired the Holland Perfect Primer Seater, and gave it a positive review. Todd writes: “This cartridge case priming system allows you to measure the primer pocket depth and adjust the seating tool to match the primer seating depth for a contact fit with a measured lot of primers to the cases you are working with. Mr. Darrell Holland has taken a standard RCBS automatic bench-mounted priming tool and modified it to a new level of precision. The modifications allow you to measure the primer pocket depth, primer height, and with the addition of an adjustable stop on the priming tool achieve precision primer seating, rather than how the primer ‘feels'[.]
If you are already utilizing the RCBS priming tool, Mr. Holland offers an adapter kit to upgrade your equipment. If you are looking for a new priming unit, I suggest giving this product a try. Increasing consistency when seating primers should result in smaller groups[.]”
Panteo Productions, producers of firearms training videos, has just released a new series of FREE instructional videos for handgun owners. Co-sponsored by Ruger and Federal, the Handgun 101 video series covers handgun and ammunition nomenclature, handgun functions, basic shooting skills, and the key considerations for concealed carry. The three-part series includes: Intro to Handguns, A Concealed Carry Permit, and Intro to Concealed Carry. Part 1 includes multiple chapters with a ton of information. Combined with Part 2 (20 min) and Part 3 (33 min), this series delivers over two hours of helpful content.
These free videos are available streaming online from the Panteao website, on the Panteao mobile apps for Android and Apple devices, as well as on television from the Panteao Make Ready channel on Roku, Amazon Fire TV, and Apple TV. Click the links below to watch each of the three episodes.
In part One of Handgun 101, Intro to Handguns, instructor Kyle Harth reviews the firearm safety rules, handgun function (and terminology) for both revolvers and semi-auto pistols. In addition, Harth reviews handgun sizes, ammunition, how to grip a handgun properly, safely storing a handgun, proper training, shooting sports and carrying a handgun. This video is intended to be a handgun owner’s first step in familiarizing himself with handgun operation.
In Part Two of Handgun 101, A Concealed Carry Permit, instructors Kyle Harth and Massad Ayoob carrying a handgun for self-defense, and the important issues associated with defensive gun use. This video reviews concealed carry, traveling from state to state, prohibited carry locations, the use of deadly force, protection of persons and property, and interaction with law enforcement. If you are considering obtaining a concealed carry permit or live in a state where you can carry open or concealed without a permit, this video is for you.
In Part Three of Handgun 101, Intro to Concealed Carry, instructor Kyle Harth reviews handgun selection, caliber and ammo choices, methods of carry, belts and mag pouches, clothing considerations, and the importance of training. Remember that the Handgun 101 series is not where your education process ends. Take courses from reputable firearms instructors with understanding of self-defense legal matters. Equally important, go to the range and practice!
If you’ve never been to a benchrest match, visit the IBS website to find an affiliated club in your area. You’ll find schedules for upcoming events where you can learn about the sport.
This article describes an impressive complete benchrest rifle that will be awarded next month to an IBS competitor in the IBS Southeastern Region. This premium benchrest rig was a collaborative effort, with components and build labor donated by many companies. The rifle and scope prize will be awarded at a Banquet on November 10, 2018. The winner will be chosen from shooters who have accumulated “tickets” (essentially prize credits) over the course of the year. Tickets are earned through match attendance and shooting performance: 1 ticket for each match attended in the SE region ranges listed above (AFTER attending five matches). Shooters get additional tickets for a perfect 2,500 score, plus 10 additional tickets for attending at least one match at each and every participating range.
A Magnificent Prize by Boyd Allen, IBS Vice President
Coming up with prizes for shooting events is always a challenge, and results can vary considerably from match to match. This rifle is at the apex of the prize pyramid. Few complete rifles are seen on prize tables, because of their cost, and because they are generally built to order from select components, produced by multiple manufacturers. There are no off-the-shelf benchrest rifles, and if there were, the price of one, complete with a quality scope, would be too great to ask of a single source, given the size of the typical businesses that serve this sport.
Any score shooter would be glad to have this rifle and feel quite fortunate to win it. It is a fine example of its type, made of top components, and stocked with a “Indian Blanket” pattern Obeche laminate that will not be seen again once the supply runs out, because the factory that produced it burned down. As you would expect for this type of competition, it is chambered for the 30 BR.
This prize rifle was built to increase interest and participation in centerfire score shooting in the Southeast Region of the International Benchrest Shooters (IBS), as well as to encourage competitors to visit more ranges and attend more IBS matches. Ranges participating in this prize campaign are:
Good luck to everyone for the remainder of the 2018 season. NOTE: There are more detailed rules than we can reproduce here (for space reasons). If you intend on taking a serious run at this prize, take the time to inquire about all of the specifics.
Left to Right: Jim Cline, Doyle Anglin, and Ronnie Milford.
Background of the IBS Rifle Prize
Ronnie Milford explained: “Near the completion of the Southeastern Regional, I [asked] some of our fellow shooters about increasing participation. One of them suggested that we have one big prize that would be participation-based. I ran the idea of building a complete rifle by my personal gunsmith Doyle Anglin. He warned me that he had seen others try to do the same thing, and that it would be hard to get people to donate products. That lit a fire. First phone call was to Jim Kelbly who offered to donate the action. For the trigger Jim recommended a Bix & Andy from Chris at Bullet Central. I then called Jim Cline, and he got Brux to donate the barrel. Then, I talked to my NightForce contacts, Allen Stillwell and Wayne Dayberry. They donated a competition scope.
My next phone call was back to Doyle Anglin and I told him what had been donated. He then talked about ‘fitting and chambering, pillar bedding, and stock by Dixie Guns’. When Dave Short heard what we were doing, he donated a trigger guard, chamber cleaning kit, and a barrel tuner. Jim called Linwood Harrell who donated our scope rings. We were almost complete, and I told them that I would spray the finish on the stock. When this news got out, it caused a great deal of excitement.”
Prize Rifle Eligibility and Award Procedures
This custom rifle will be given away at the awards banquet on November 10, 2018 in Orangeburg, SC. The winner will be chosen using tickets earned during the season. A shooter will “earn” 1 prize chance ticket for each match attended in the SE region ranges listed above, AFTER attending five (5) matches. (If you attend four matches or less you will receive 0 tickets for attendance.) You can get 5 additional tickets for a perfect 2,500 score and 10 additional tickets for attending one match minimum at each participating range. We will keep track of the tickets earned and they will be passed out at the banquet for you to personally place them in the container.
Prize Rifle Being Constructed at Doyle Anglin and Ronnie Milford shops:
Support the Sponsors — This is a very impressive prize. Keep the generosity of all who donated to the project in mind the next time that you are in the market for products they make or sell. In the future we may offer a follow-up story about the rifle winner and his/her first competition with this 30 BR benchrest rifle. In any case, on November 10, 2018, someone is going to be very happy with their valuable prize.
Built to Shoot — Remember this rifle was created by donations, to grow the sport, and promote shooting, not to sell for monetary gain. If you do not plan on shooting this rifle, please donate it to an upcoming shooter. Ronnie Milford, and Jim Cline worked hard to make this dream become a reality. Let’s not let down the sponsors who continue to support us.
Western Powders (which sells Accurate, Ramshot, and Norma powders) has published an article on case inspection and preparation. There are many tips in this article that can be useful to precision hand-loaders. For example, every time you open a new box of cartridge brass (particularly from domestic makers), you should inspect each case for flaws.
TIP ONE: Visual Inspection — Finding Flaws
Cases are mass-produced items and malformed ones are relatively common. Inspect each case carefully looking for obvious defects. A bench-mounted magnifying glass with light is a real help for the over-40 crowd. The main defects will be cracks in the neck or case body, crushed shoulders or deep creases in the neck. Next check the primer pocket. It is also fairly common to find flash holes that are damaged or, more rarely, not concentric to the primer pocket.
Imperfections like small dings in the case body, or necks that are not completely symmetrical do not have to be eliminated at this step. Damage of this sort is usually from loose packaging and usually has not seriously damaged the brass. [Running an expander mandrel in the neck] and fire-forming will iron out these largely cosmetic issues.
The Western Powder article also talks about primer pocket uniforming. We do NOT normally uniform the pockets for Lapua or RWS brass from the start. However, pocket uniforming can be beneficial with some other brands of brass, including Lake City, Remington, and Winchester. If you shoot milsurp brass, set time aside for pocket uniforming.
TIP TWO: Primer Pocket Uniforming Like flash holes, primer pockets are mass-produced and prone to small dimensional changes. A uniforming tool is used to make the depth of each primer pocket consistent. In turn this allows similar firing pin strike depths on the primer which creates more consistent ignition characteristics.
A good uniforming tool should have a shoulder, or another positive stop, that sets the cutter’s depth. Its use is pretty straightforward. The cutter is inserted into the pocket and turned clockwise several times until the stop in flush with the case head and no more brass is removed from the juncture of the pocket’s base and sidewall. This a job best done by hand. You will feel when the cutting is finished by a change in how smoothly the cutter turns in the pocket. Very little material is actually removed; usually just enough to square the radius at the bottom of the pocket.
Do you have a family member who has recently acquired his or her first firearm? Do you have friends or neighbors who keep firearms in a home with small children? It is important to know and practice the principles of firearms safety, ALL the time. Here are two well-written gun safety manuals in printable PDF format. All firearms owners, even experienced hunters and competitors, can benefit from reviewing these resources from time to time. And new gun owners, in particular, should take the time to read both these guides. The Remington Safety Manual includes the “Ten Commandments of Firearms Safety”. Here’s the First Commandment:
Event Director Suzi Rouse has served as President of the Oklahoma City Gun Club. She’s been a very effective leader in an activity typically dominated by men.
User Review by Tommy Todd
Like flash holes, primer pockets are mass-produced and prone to small dimensional changes. A uniforming tool is used to make the depth of each primer pocket consistent. In turn this allows similar firing pin strike depths on the primer which creates more consistent ignition characteristics.
